An index of diversity describes the relationship between the number of species and the number of individuals in a community. Calculation of an index of diversity from the formula. Candidates should be able to • calculate the index of diversity from suitable data • interpret data relating to the effects of human activity on species diversity and be able to evaluate associated benefits and risks • discuss the ways in which society uses science to inform the making of decisions relating to biodiversity.

The index of diversity is a way of quantifying species diversity.

The formula is as follows (this will be given in an exam):

sciencebitz

where N= total number of organisms of all species (community)
and n= total number of organisms of each species

This means that, if we take a quadrant from a rain forest and we see one tree, five birds, twenty ants and two snakes the equation will be as follows:

1+5+20+2(1+5+20+2-1)                  
(1(1-1))+(5(5-1))+(20(20-1)+(2(2-1)
=
28(27)                          
1(0)+5(4)+20(19)+2(1)
=
756               
0+20+380+2
=
756
402
=
1.9

Courtship behaviour as a necessary precursor to successful mating. The role of courtship in species recognition.

Species all display different behaviour, this helps them to recognise each other.

This is beneficial to a species as they want to breed with each other so that they produce fertile offspring and pass on their genes.

There are other advantages of specific behaviour displayed during courtship:

• Show that they are capable of breeding: to optimise the chance of producing offspring.
• Form a pair bond: to successfully raise the offspring.
• Mate at an appropriate time: optimise the chance of fertilisation.

The principles and importance of taxonomy. Classification systems consist of a hierarchy in which groups are contained within larger composite groups and there is no overlap. The phylogenetic groups are based on patterns of evolutionary history. A species may be defined in terms of observable similarities and the ability to produce fertile offspring. One hierarchy comprises Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Candidates should be able to appreciate the difficulties of defining species and the tentative nature of classifying organisms as distinct species.

Taxonomy is the system used to group organisms, it is important to scientist to establish the relationships between different species.

All organisms originated from the same organism but through evolution have ended up with significant amounts of variation.

Phylogenetic groups are how recently two species have been related (how recently they evolved apart into different species).

Sometimes organisms are organised due to observable physical characteristics which do not necessarily mean they are closely genetically related.

Classification is not yet perfected due to the sheer number and the complexity of life on earth.

The most common system is:

scunderwood

The definition of a species is a group of organisms which can breed to create fertile offspring.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F38BmgPcZ_I

The cells of multicellular organisms may differentiate and become adapted for specific functions. Tissues as aggregations of similar cells, and organs as aggregations of tissues performing specific physiological functions. Organs are organised into systems.

Each cell in the body starts off the same but then they specialise by expressing certain genes.

This is beneficial as different cells are better off at carrying out certain jobs.

Aggregation is grouping together.

A groups of similar cells function together as a tissue (are aggregated).

Tissues are then aggregated into organs. These have several different types of tissue which function together as a system.

Similarities and differences between individuals within a species may be the result of genetic factors, differences in environmental factors, or a combination of both. Candidates should appreciate the tentative nature of any conclusions that can be drawn relating to the causes of variation.

Both genetics and environment can have an effect on the things that make up an individual. Key examples include genes on eye colour, environment on how far you reach your growth potential and environment and genes on skin colour.

It is often difficult to tell weather variation is environmental or genetic. In almost all cases it is a mixture of both. The prime display of this being that two twins with exactly the same genes have the potential to end up very different.

There are three things that cause genetic variation:

• The random fusion of gametes: the specific sperm and egg that happened to meet at the specific moment that a offspring is created are completely random and have a massive effect on the genes inherited.
• Mutations: DNA can be changed by mistakes in copying or caused by things like radiation.
• Meiosis: this form of cell division that creates gametes has crossing over (genetic recombination) and independent segregation which both vary the genes inherited.

The concept of normal distribution about a mean. Understanding mean and standard deviation as measures of variation within a sample. Candidates will not be required to calculate standard deviation in questions on written papers. Candidates should be able to analyse and interpret data relating to interspecific and intraspecific variation.

When figures get larger towards the mean with no bias left or right, the graph will have this shape:

Mathsisfun

The shape is known as a bell curve and the distribution of values is called 'normal distribution'.
If a graph has normal distribution, then 68% of the results will be within 1 standard deviation and 95% of results will be within 2 standard deviations:

Biologyforlife

Standard deviations are a measure of accurate data is; the scattering of data around the mean.

The more centrally (around the mean) scattered they are then the more accurate the data is. If data is really spread out and there is only a small proportion of the data that is near the mean then it will have a large standard deviation, and will not be good data to draw conclusions from.

To work out standard deviation you add together all the deviations and then divide this by the number of values minus one.

To work out a deviation, first find the mean then subtract the it from a value. This answer needs to be squared to eliminate negative numbers. Do this for each value and then add them up. Divide this number by the number of values minus one. Find the square root.

You don't actually need to be able to do this according to the mark scheme, but it would seem wise to learn it.

For example, if I have 1, 2 and 3 and I want to work out the standard deviation I first find the mean
This is done by adding up all the values and dividing by the number of values you have (3):
1+2+3= 6
6/3=2
Next you need to subtract the mean from each value and square the answer:
1-2= -1
-1 squared= 1
2-2= 0
0 squared= 0
3-2= 1
1 squared= 1
Then add together all these answers:
1+0+1= 2
Now divide this by the number of values (3) minus one:
2/2= 0
Now find the square root of this:
the square root of 0= 0
So here one standard deviation is zero.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUaua15QzK4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gV1gUdFvI54

Variation exists between members of a species. The need for random sampling, and the importance of chance in contributing to differences between samples.

Members of a species differ from each other (intra-specific variation).

We can use random sampling to analyse these differences.

This involves taking a small number of individuals at random from a population, analysing them, gaining statistics and then making the assumption that these statistics are the same for the whole population.

Normally this is carried out by having a grid of an area and using a random number generator to pick squares in the grid to analyse.

The benefit of random sampling is that there are multiple values put in so you get an average, reducing anomalies and making the result more representative, however because the figure is taken from just a sample, it means that you do not have to attempt to find a figure for every single individual.

Unfortunately there is an element of chance involved meaning that the statistics gained may be inaccurate as a non-representative sample was chosen. However, by increasing the sample size you can decrease the element of chance.